Michael Pollan on Peter Singer

In his article published in the New York Times, Michael Pollan interprets Peter Singer’s thoutghs as those of an ardent defender of animal rights, especially with regard to those slaughtered for meat.According to Pollan, Singer looks at the moral obligation of treating people with equal capabilities and uses it in the context of the relationship between people and animals.   Singer’s argument is not to give animals equal rights with people per se, but at least consider their rights where they both share interest.Because avoiding pain is a behavior associated with both humans and animals, animals should be given moral consideration on those grounds. Singer’s arguments, according to Pollan, have led to the conversion of thousands of people into vegetarians. Singer is therefore depicted as strong animal rights crusader.Pollan defends the meat eating culture in a number of ways. First, he believes that animals have the habit of eating each other all the time, and t herefore human beings are justified to eat them. The problem with this argument is that animals kill in order to survive. Human beings, on the other hand, do not have to kill to survive.  His second argument on why human beings should kill animals is based on domestication of animals. His position is that farm animals would be worse off if they lived in the wild.   However, domestication is driven by a demand, and that is the reason why domesticated animals exist.Indeed, animal rightist believe that if there were no domesticated animals, there would be no suffering for them. Pollan finally accepts that animal suffering is a legitimate problem, but expresses the need to solve human problems first. Again, this perspective puts animals at a disadvantage because they cannot participate in any moral decision making process.Pollan appears to embrace utilitarianism on the grounds that humans owe animals that can feel pain moral consideration, and this justifies why they should be eaten . Pollan concludes that industrialization has led to the loss of human feelings, which he refers as dehumanization. Specifically, he points out that America raises and slaughters animals in a brutal manner more than any other country.However, he insists that there is some kind of protectionism, whereby a variety of key players lack adequate information on the real status of the meat industry in America. If this information were to become available, the meat industry would undergo an overnight transformation, with meat becoming more expensive.  Ã‚  People will eat meat while giving the animals the respect they deserve. Pollan does not call for total abolishment of the places where animals are slaughtered, but rather advocates for a more humane way of growing and slaughtering them.Pollan’s argument appears more rational because his case is argued from a holistic perspective, taking views from both animal rightists and meat crusaders. His final stand is based on an analysis of the interests of both the animal rightists and meat crusaders, while that of singer appears to strictly consider animal rights only. Meat eating has featured in the diet of human beings for a long time.The hunter-gatherer societies and the early man both exploited meat, not for luxury but for subsistence. The idea of animal farming is to sustain the meat industry without compromising the availability of meat in the future. This, however, should be done in the most humane way. For example, animals should be allocated sufficient space for exercise while they are being grown. They should also be slaughtered in such a manner that they should encounter least pain.ReferencesPollan, M. (2002). An Animals Place. The New York Times magazine. Retrieved from http://michaelpollan.com/article.php?id=55 on 9th April 2009

Destiny and Frankenstein Essay

â€Å"Destiny was too potent, and her immutable laws had decreed my utter and terrible destruction.† Victor Frankenstein says this right before telling Walton his story.Destiny played an important role in the book Frankenstein. Victor sees it as the force that caused his downfall. He blames most of what has happened on destiny. At first it was his destiny to build the monster, afterwards he says it is his destiny to destroy it. Victor feltas if some force was making him experiment, that some force was making him make the monster and he had no control over it. This is why when he was building the monster he shut him self off from everything else and committed himself to his experiment. He didn’t have to do this but something was driving him to, and it might have been his curiosity and his wanting to cheat death, or play god, or do something no one else had ever done before, but also, he may have had those characteristics because he was destined to have them. Maybe this a ll happened so he and others can understand that you shouldn’t play god, but then after he built the monster it was his destiny to destroy it. As a result of Victor’s actions, many of his loved ones died, Elizabeth, William, Justine, and his father. After Victor made the monster his destiny became to be punished for it, but could Victor have prevented all this? Maybe, and maybe not. The answer to that question depends on whether you believe in destiny or not. Is destiny really so powerful that Victor had no control over it? Could Victor’s destiny have been different if he hadn’t built the monster? Could Victor have sustained from building the monster, or was destiny too powerful? How about the part when Victor destroys the female monster, what would have happened if Victor hadn’t destroyed it, or was it his destiny to destroy it? Later on in the book he follows the monster into the cold, what if he didn’t, would he have still died? In all of this Victor made decisions, he decided whether or not to go off to college, he decided whether or not to build the monster, he decided whether or not to build the female, he decided whether or not to chase after the monster, but where these really his decisions, or was it his destiny to end up on Walton’s ship? Victor told Walton his story and showed what wanting to explore into the unknown can lead to, in the end, Walton’s ship turns around and decides not to find the North Pole. I believe that it was Victor’s destiny for all this to happen because in the end all that he has done was told to teach Walton a lesson. Destiny is said to be a powerful force which determines your future. If you believe in destiny, you believe that everyone was put on this earth for a reason and everything you do is for a reason. Believing in destiny means that when you do something, even though you might think you are making a decision on your own, you are really carrying out your destiny. I do believe that destiny does have a big part on peoples lives. I believe that many of the decisions you make, you make them because it was your fate to make them. There are many examples in people’s lives that can make you think, what would have happened if I had done this differently? Or, was it my fate for this to happen, or just the results of my mistakes. A couple years ago my aunt died in a train accident, and everyone started thinking, if she had been on a different train, or if she was late and couldn’t get on the train, or if she hadn’t been on the trip, would she still have died? I believe that it was her destiny to go on that train because it was her time to die. Another example of this is about this girl that I know, when she was younger her parents, brother and sister died in a car accident. She always regrets that she stayed home sick on that day and didn’t die right along with them. But I think that she was spared for a reason, maybe she’ll make a difference in someone’s life. Destiny is a very powerful thing. Many people think factors can alter destiny, one being not taking responsibilities for your actions, which is what Victor did. He refused to blame what happened on himself. If you believe in destiny too much, you slack off and don’t try to change for the better, and you donâ₠¬â„¢t take care of yourself because you think, â€Å"whatever happens it is going to be the same no matter what I do because it is my destiny and its been already decided.† In the book Victor blamed most of the things that happened on destiny and didn’t take responsibility for most of them. He refused to blame what happened as his own doing. When he was building the monster, he didn’t try to stop himself, when the monster came to life he ran away, he left Elizabeth alone for a second on his wedding night thinking he was the one the monster was after, he then chased after the monster thinking it was his destiny to do so which caused his death. He believed everything that happened was his destiny and that he could not have altered it. When you believe in destiny you try to do what you think your destiny has planned out for you, and even if you don’t you still do what was planned, even if you’re wrong about your destiny it always catches up with you. Lets say some guy thinks its his destined is to become a doctor, he tries and he tries and he becomes one but later on he realizes being a lawyer is the job for him, because that wa s his destiny. Some people who believe in destiny slack of because they think that whatever happens, I couldn’t have prevented it, they might lets say start smoking and think if I die from this its because it was my destiny to do so. Then they die from it and some people think it may have been prevented, but I believe that even if he didn’t believe in destiny he would have taken up smoking because the way he would die had already been decided for him. Lets say someone commits suicide, people always think it could have been prevented, but I believe they died because it was their destiny, if it wasn’t their time to die yet, they may have tried to commit suicide but wouldn’t have succeeded. So in reality you cant even control when you die, like when Napoleon tried to kill himself with that powerful poison and failed, it wasn’t his time to die yet. So in conclusion I believe that everything that happened to Victor was the result of destiny. I don’t believe that it happened because he gave in too much to his curiosity. I believe it was his destiny to have this curiosity, to look into the unknown and to try to have the power to create life. What led him to this was the death of his mother this made him want to try to reanimate the dead, it was his mother’s destiny to die so that Victor’s destiny would be fulfilled. So it wasn’t Victor’s characteristics that led him to fall, he had those characteristics because he was destined to fall.

Nursing Manager Skill Inventory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nursing Manager Skill Inventory - Essay Example My personal growth and development have always been my strongest points during my clinical experience and I would mention this as an expert practice. I am always in process of self-analysis and to work that out properly, I make strong plans for future and try my best to act upon them. To set high standards of ethical and moral behavior has always been my strength. I would rate myself as skillful and competent in the field of professional association involvement. Professional associations for networking and increasing social circle in my field for the better discussion on various topics in on top of my list and I strongly intend to apply that. I have certifications to prove this claim. Career Planning I have always tried my best to keep my professional work above everything else and that is why I am well equipped with tools and requirements that complete my professional abilities and I consider myself expert in this field. I have a strong and well-developed understanding of the professional demands that I have to cater in future I have strong and firm plans as for how I would achieve those goals. In spite of my strength goals, I would consider myself as a flexible person who is receptive to positive change. Personal Journey Disciplines Development of individual leadership qualities and strengthening them has always been a top priority for me in the field of nursing. I have strong leadership qualities and patients, as well as my fellow works, look up to me when they intend to take any suggestions. For me, action learning and reflective practice would be placed as competitive skill. I always work for achieving high ranks in any clinical setting I work in. Reflective Practice Reference Behaviors/Tenets I am not only well equipped with latest and current guidelines but I also put them in action and see their reflection in my professional ability. I always value integrity and truth in my profession and take it to highest possible levels. Diversity is a tool I am skillful at but I would regard myself a complete expert when it comes to holding multiple perspectives without biased opinion, in discovering potentials of life and keeping my commitments to myself. I do however get emotional with my patients and that at times e ffects my professional ability to stay focused. Current Leadership Skills as Method of Improvement I intend to use my leadership to improve workplace on individual and professional grounds for the whole team. I am always in search of knowledge that can help me understand new things so that I can work in a better manner for my patients. I also try to improve the workplace by mutual discussions and problem sharing with other colleagues. I always want to see a positive change in the workplace and I try my best in doing that too.  

Resourcing and Talent Management - Case study and Research Assignment

Resourcing and Talent Management - Case study and Research - Assignment Example The working options are somewhat rigid and the human resource management systems are not very fair. This report is written on the background of these issues and identifies the major UK labour market and its linkage to the issue at hand. The report will look at the critical issues in the organization and the possible solutions to the issue. There are some elements of the human resource management and talent management system that seem to be problematic. These issues form the basis and foundation of the challenges that OXEN.org is facing at the moment. From the scenario, it appears there is a merger of OXEN.org and some other companies. Mergers normally bring up cultural differences and matters that leads to major conflicts and issues in an organisation. When a merger is done and reasonable care is not taken to streamline the culture and the activities of the members of the two organisations, there is bound to be cultural tensions and issues that affects talent management and human resource issues. Cultural issues in mergers and acquisitions that have bearings on talent management and human resource management appear in the initial planning stage, closing of the deal and the post-merger integration stage (Harzing and Ruysseveldt, 2012). This involves the cultural clash of the different entities that come together under the merger and acquisition agreement. From this case, OXEN.org seem to have major problems and issues that relates to the clashes of cultures which is creating some degree of confusion that is having an adverse impact on the performance of the charitable organisation. It appears there is a major issue with the coordination of affairs between the London, Manchester and New York offices of the company. And this is probably a cause of some human resource management issues and matters which could include amongst

Customer Service Lapses Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Customer Service Lapses - Essay Example Throughout, the patient was alone, and no help was provided to her to clear her prescription at the pharmacy. c. There was the lack of staff in the clinic for patient care. Only one physician was present, who had to take care of the patients in urgent care as well as in family medicine. Follow-up Questions a. How was the experience of the patient with respect to care provided by a physician? b. Was the medical staff including nurses, etc. helpful in giving medical assistance? c. What problems did the patient face on the visit related to (time, fees, care, medicine etc.)? Future Actions a. Hire the required staff necessary to facilitate the number of patients visiting each day to the clinic. Separate doctors should be there for attending patients in family medicine and urgent care. b. The staff has to make sure that no patient has to wait for long hours. Every task should be performed on time and must be organized. c. Curtail the excessive documentation; keep the system simple, manage able and effective. PDCA: (ASQ 20) Plan: Improve documentation process, reduce waiting time and get new staff hired. Track the changes by taking feedback from patients. Do: Bring immediate changes by assisting patients and reduce the waiting time. Check: Check the patients’ response on forms for checking system efficiency.

Lab #3 Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Lab #3 - Speech or Presentation Example Therefore, people are not watching a lot of TV. Respondents mean number of hours watching television per day is greater than the median number of hours watching television per day that suggest positive skewness (right skewed). As can be seen in figure 1, the distribution of number of hours watching television per day is skewed to right (the long tail of histogram point’s right). This visual skewness is also supported by coefficient of skewness, which is 2.82. 2. Complete a â€Å"Select Cases† function in SPSS to obtain a sample from the overall population (entire data-set). Using the â€Å"degree† variable, select cases so you are taking the part of the dataset that reported having less than High School as their response. After completing the function, re-run the appropriate statistics and visual representation for the â€Å"tvhours† variable and answer the following questions (3 Marks) The average number of hours per day that respondents with less than High School watch television is about 3.93 hours (SD = 2.82). About half of the respondents with less than High School watch television up to 3.5 hours per day. About 50% of the respondents with less than High School watch television in between 2 to 5 hours per day. Most of the respondents with less than High School watch television 2 hours per day. The range of the number of hours watching television by respondents with less than High School is 24 hours per day with minimum being 0 hours per day and maximum being 24 hours per day (may be an error in data!). Watching television greater than 3 hours per day, in my opinion is a lot. Therefore, respondents with less than High School are watching a lot of TV. The mean number of hours watching television per day for respondents with less than High School is greater than the median number of hours watching television per day that suggest positive skewness (right skewed). As can be seen in figure 2, the distribution of number of hours

John stuart mill (for history of psychology class) Essay

John stuart mill (for history of psychology class) - Essay Example He left Scotland four years later and went to London. James Stuart's London life has been divided into three periods: that of struggle - 1802-1819, the period of his most successful works - 1819- 1829 and the last one, from 1830 to his death, in 1836, when he both enjoyed fame and had been made Head Examiner in the India House. As to his inner life, some features are to be noticed: the negativist attitude towards religion, the strength of character, the critical and analytical spirit - "there is nothing which such a spirit will not analyze, nothing which it will not dare to comprehend" (Courtney, 1888, p.20), the rationality, lack of imagination and sympathy. Rationality and strength of character are to be seen both in his personal life, in his relationship with his children and friends, deprived of all emotion and feeling, and in his literary works. And it's according to the principles of pure logic that his son, John Stuart Mill was educated. We find an important amount of data concerning John Stuart Mill's life in his own autobiography. In the first chapter of his own book, before starting with the presentation of his childhood and early education, Mill states the reasons of his writing this work: "I do not for a moment imagine that any part of what I h... tory, it may be useful that there should be some record of an education which was unusual and remarkable, and which, whatever else it may have done, has proved how much more than is commonly supposed may be taught, and will taught, in those early years which, in the common modes of what is called instruction, are little better than wasted. It has also seemed to me that in an age of transition in opinions, there may be somewhat both of interest and of benefit in noting the successive phases of any mind which was always pressing forward, equally ready to learn and to unlearn either from its own thoughts or from those of others. But a motive which weighs more with me than either of these, is a desire to make acknowledgment of the debts which my intellectual and moral development owes to other persons; some of them of recognized eminence, others less known than they deserve to be, and the one to whom most of all is due, one whom the world had no opportunity of knowing." (Mill, 1944, p.1) As we can see, from the very beginning, John Stuart Mill states the influence that others had on his own development. From the following pages we find out, in the context of the presentation of his first years of life, who these others were. Born on the 20th of May, 1806, the English philosopher started learning Greek when he was three years old. In his book, this piece of information is presented as told by others, as he himself doesn't remember when he took his first Greek class. He reads Greek masterpieces: Herodotus, Socrates, Diogenes Laertius and Plato's writings and, when he is eight years old, he starts learning Latin. It's also during his early childhood that he learns arithmetic but most of his time is occupied with the reading of books - mostly history books. The child makes

Strategic Response to Climate Change by Global Companies Essay

Strategic Response to Climate Change by Global Companies - Essay Example It will clearly show what the future holds for these companies as well as their sustainability. The study will use qualitative and inducive methods of investigation to capture these characteristics. Apart from the operations managers in the three companies, information from the people in the UK is also going to be of great help. It also purposes to prove that the three companies invest considerable amount of resources on ecology, they have strategic climate change policies, and that they promote climate change awareness among employees as well as other stakeholders. It also aims to show how climate change affects the internal organization of the companies, and the business itself. It will also prove that the companies are working towards carbon dioxide emission reduction, by using various policies. It will also show how climate change affects the nature of their emerging products, and how they involve third parties in the climate change awareness. The study also seeks to propose stud ies in other industries and on stragies organizations in third world countries are employing in combating climate change. TÐ BLЕ OF CONTЕNTS ABSTRACT 1. CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Outline of the study 1.2 Background of the research 1.3 Problem Statement 1.4 Rationale 1.5 Aims and Objectives 1.6 Significance 1.7 Research Questions 1.8 Research Methodology 1.9 Dissertation structure 2. CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 2.2 CorporÐ °tÐ µ RÐ µsponsÐ µs to ClÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µ ChÐ °ngÐ µ: ExÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"ng ClÐ °ssÃ'â€"fÃ'â€"cÐ °tÃ'â€"ons 2.3 EmÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"on MÐ µÃ °surÐ µmÐ µnt Ð °nd TÐ °rgÐ µts 2.4 The Banking Sector 2.5 The Oil industry 2.6 Construction Companies and the Real Estate Sector 2.7 Automobile Industry 2.8... NÐ °turÐ µ Ð °nd clÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µ hÐ °vÐ µ Ð ° bÃ'â€"g rolÐ µ to plÐ °y Ã'â€"n thÐ µ Ð µxÃ'â€"stÐ µncÐ µ of mÐ °n kÃ'â€"nd. But wÃ'â€"th thÐ µ Ð °dvÐ µnt of Ã'â€"ndustrÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"sÐ °tÃ'â€"on, thÐ µ fÐ °tÐ µs of thÐ µsÐ µ forcÐ µs hÐ °vÐ µ chÐ °ngÐ µd. ThÐ µ Ã'â€"ndustrÃ'â€"Ð µs hÐ °vÐ µ usÐ µd nÐ °turÐ µ for thÐ µÃ'â€"r motÃ'â€"vÐ µ of profÃ'â€"t Ð °nd Ð µxploÃ'â€"tÐ µd Ã'â€"t wÃ'â€"thout Ð °ny concÐ µrn for Ð ° lÐ °rgÐ µ numbÐ µr of yÐ µÃ °rs. But thÐ µ tÃ'â€"mÐ µ hÐ °s chÐ °ngÐ µd Ð °nd thÐ µrÐ µ hÐ °vÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn cÃ'â€"rcumstÐ °ncÐ µs of nÐ °turÐ °l cÐ °lÐ °mÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð µs Ð °nd Ð ° rÐ °pÃ'â€"d chÐ °ngÐ µ Ã'â€"n thÐ µ clÃ'â€"mÐ °tÃ'â€"c condÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"ons Ã'â€"n vÐ °rÃ'â€"ous rÐ µgÃ'â€"ons. It hÐ °s sÐ µnt thÐ µ compÐ °nÃ'â€"Ð µs on Ð ° bÐ °ck foot Ð °nd undÐ µr prÐ µssurÐ µ from vÐ °rÃ'â€"ous communÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð µs Ð °nd Ã'â€"ntÐ µrÐ µst groups; thÐ µy no morÐ µ cÐ °n Ð µxploÃ'â€" t thÐ µ nÐ °turÐ µ Ð °t thÐ µÃ'â€"r wÃ'â€"ll Ã'â€"n ordÐ µr to sÐ °tÃ'â€"sfy thÐ µÃ'â€"r profÃ'â€"t motÃ'â€"vÐ µs. ThÐ µ compÐ °nÃ'â€"Ð µs of todÐ °y hÐ °vÐ µ bÐ µcomÐ µ much morÐ µ conscÃ'â€"ous Ã'â€"n thÐ µÃ'â€"r opÐ µrÐ °tÃ'â€"ons. (HoffmÐ °n, 1997, p.143)1.2 BÐ °ckground of thÐ µ rÐ µsÐ µÃ °rchOvÐ µr thÐ µ pÐ °st tÐ µn yÐ µÃ °rs, clÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µ chÐ °ngÐ µ hÐ °s mÐ °dÐ µ hÐ µÃ °dwÐ °y Ð °s Ð ° globÐ °l Ã'â€"ssuÐ µ, prÐ µmÃ'â€"Ð µr to thÐ µ Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µncÐ µ of nÐ µw Ã'â€"nstÃ'â€"tutÃ'â€"ons to hold bÐ °ck grÐ µÃ µnhousÐ µ gÐ °s (GHG) Ð µmÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"ons. SÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µ Ð °doptÃ'â€"on of thÐ µ Kyoto Protocol Ã'â€"n 1997 Ð °nd thÐ µ lÐ °tÐ µr dÃ'â€"scussÃ'â€"ons on thÐ µ spÐ µcÃ'â€"fÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð µs Ã'â€"n pÐ µrÃ'â€"ods of Ã'â€"mplÐ µmÐ µntÐ °tÃ'â€"on, Ð µspÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lly Ð µmÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"ons dÐ µÃ °lÃ'â€"ng hÐ °s profÃ'â€"tÐ µd ground Ð °s Ð ° lÐ µgÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µ wÐ °y to dÐ µÃ  °l wÃ'â€"th thÃ'â€"s Ð µnvÃ'â€"ronmÐ µntÐ °l Ã'â€"ssuÐ µ. EmÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"ons trÐ °dÃ'â€"ng Ð °llow countrÃ'â€"Ð µs whÃ'â€"ch drop undÐ µr thÐ µ Kyoto Protocol to dÐ µcrÐ µÃ °sÐ µ thÐ µÃ'â€"r GHG Ð µmÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"ons by swÐ °ppÃ'â€"ng pÐ °rt of thÃ'â€"s rÐ µsponsÃ'â€"bÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"ty wÃ'â€"th Ð °nothÐ µr pÐ °rty to thÐ µ Protocol. HowÐ µvÐ µr, thÐ µ Ã'â€"mplÐ µmÐ µntÐ °tÃ'â€"on of thÃ'â€"s Ã'â€"ntÐ µrgovÐ µrnmÐ µntÐ °l Ð µmÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"ons dÐ µÃ °lÃ'â€"ng rÐ µgÃ'â€"mÐ µ on Ð ° busÃ'â€"nÐ µss grÐ °dÐ µ hÐ °s glÃ'â€"mpsÐ µd lÐ °rgÐ µ dÃ'â€"vÐ µrsÃ'â€"ty worldwÃ'â€"dÐ µ

Inter-Cultural Teams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Inter-Cultural Teams - Essay Example People who are assigned to inter-cultural teams often begin working closely with a group of new team members, and the welfare of the new group tends to displace the welfare of the individual as the team attempts to build cohesiveness and a sense of interdependence. (Wellins, 1990, 76) As with self-management, the use of teams in the workplace also may best be thought of as lying on a continuum. At one end, teams with a low degree of interdependence consist of employees who rarely see each other and perform their tasks without exchanging information or materials. At the other end of the continuum, teams with a high degree of task interdependence consist of employees who frequently interact and constantly exchange materials and information to complete their tasks.1 On a highly interdependent team, successful task accomplishment obviously depends greatly on the interaction of employees. Our definition of a inter-cultural teams, however, implies very little variation. Thus, we assume that resistance to inter-cultural teams is, essentially, resistance to interdependent teams. The resistance to inter-cultural teams can be due to a person's philosophy about teamwork rather than to his or her views on particular task characteristics (such as a task's degree of self-management). For example, when introduced to the idea of inter-cultural teams, an i... Thus, an employee's philosophy about working in a highly interdependent fashion, rather than in an independent manner, may be a key factor in determining that individual's support of, or resistance to, inter-cultural teams. (Adler, 1997, 117) Collectivism versus individualism When people value the welfare of the group more than the welfare of the individual, they are called "collectivists." Hofstede defines "collectivism" as a tight social framework in which a person's "identity is based in the social system" and his or her "belief is placed in group decisions" (1980b: 48). People from collectivistic cultures tend to put aside their own self-interests in deference to the interests of their group. For example, several studies have found that people in South Korea and Sweden (cultures that are highly collectivistic) disregard individual performance differences when determining employee rewards. Consistent with this, collectivists believe in cooperating rather than competing, following a group purpose rather than individual agendas, and promoting the welfare of the group over that of the individual members. In addition, people from collectivistic cultures fear being ostracized personally or bringing shame to their group for behavior not contributing to the welfare of the group. Conversely, people in "individualistic" cultures tend to put forth and promote their own welfare over the interests of their group or organization (Hofstede, 1980a). People in the United Kingdom (a highly individualistic culture) had higher incidences of social loafing than did the Chinese (a highly collectivistic culture) when working on an interdependent group task. People in the United Kingdom also prefer reward distributions that

The Death of the Traveling Salesman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Death of the Traveling Salesman - Essay Example Sometimes the silence can be deafening; the song of the birds can be maddening. At times I find myself thinking of some other places, meeting other people, living another life. It would be nice to have another friend, just perhaps to have somebody to tell me about other places and things that are far beyond the woods that surround me. But then I thought, it won't be long and Sonny and I will have another one with us, and I quietly smile in anticipation. I brought out mother's old lamp outside to clean it. It was dusty and dull, but if I just give it a scrub, it would show, though not quite as clearly now, the beautiful lamp it once had been. Gently, as if in reverence to my mother's relic, I let the rag touch the lamp. At once, I was lost in reminiscence of all those wonderful times when this lamp shone in the center of our room. The many nights that we spent together sitting around it telling stories and laughing at jokes seemed to flood back to my memory as I began to push with more force into the crevices of the lamp. Ah, how I miss all of them - my family and our life in this very same house. I missed them all, but I could not shake the thought of wishing that someday, I'd be somewhere else. Half-smiling, I meticulously worked on cleaning my lamp while lost in reverie when, suddenly, a crash somewhere down below jolted me back to the present. I looked out and waI looked out and waited, my heart pounding like a thousand drums inside my chest. What could that be It sounded like a giant rock falling down the ravine, but it could have been something else. I remember hearing a whirring sound before the crash, something like a car, but cars never go this way. Was it possible that a car jumped of the ravine Were there people inside Are they hurt I found myself trembling, not just because I worried about people I never even knew, but also because I was excited that someone had wandered this way. I was scared to know what happened to them, while at the same time it scared me not to know anything about them. I was thinking what to do when I heard footsteps coming towards the house. There in front of me was a man, middle-aged and dressed too impeccably for somebody wandering through the woods. Immediately, I thought, this man survived falling down the ravine. "Good afternoon, madam," he said. I just looked at him in shock: I was shocked that somebody got out of the car before it fell, shocked that he was still able to gather his things, shocked at finding him there in front of me. Then there was something else: perhaps, I was too dumbfounded to have someone else here to break the silence for me. He began to talk about his car; he had an accident he was saying. "Sonny ain't here now, but he'll be home soon," I told him, "he can pull your car out of the ravine for you." My husband Sonny could do just about anything; he is my hero. "Are you okay" He didn't seem to hear my question. He was looking at me with glazed eyes, as if he was looking at me but not seeing me. He was detached, as if his mind was wandering perhaps in disbelief at how he had survived the accident. I do not blame him. "I am still sick" he goes on to tell me that he isn't well. Before he could finish, I open the door to let him in, not knowing why I trusted this man to come inside with me. Perhaps I pity him for what happened, perhaps because I was lonely and I wanted some company. Probably because I could see that, despite his

The Apostle Paul Essay Example for Free

The Apostle Paul Essay This report paper will be on the life of Paul. We will look at many various different facts about this influential man of God. We all know the apostle Paul was used of God in a miraculous way, but this paper will take a behind the scenes look at some areas. I also endeavor to make this paper come alive and reveal things about the apostle Paul that maybe have never been discovered by the average reader and possibly forgotten by the veteran Christian. The Author of Acts First, let me begin by saying that in Acts class we learned the importance of Acts for the local New Testament church today. When the church is of course if we would just be reminded to get back to the book of Acts then we would see many of our church problems disappear in no time at all. Contrary to what many baby Christians believe the Apostle Paul did not write the Book of Acts, but rather we learn that Luke wrote it. This was Luke’s second treatise as it is written. Paul’s Transition The Apostle Paul that we know at the end of his Epistles is not the same as when we first meet him in the Scriptures. The Apostle Paul came a long way from where he was to where he ended up. The Bible tells us that he would persecute the Church passionately and without regard for the Believers. The Apostle Paul was arguably the world’s most influential missionary (obviously not counting the Lord Jesus) to ever walk planet earth. Paul was not always his name but actually he was called Paul only after his conversion. Paul’s first and original name was Saul. Saul was a terror to the church and a modern day widow maker in his heyday. We even see Saul there early on when Stephen the martyr was being slain by his adversaries. We read the account firsthand in Acts the seventh chapter verse fifty-eight the Bible says: Act 7:58 And cast him out of the city, and stoned him: and the witnesses laid down their clothes at a young mans feet, whose name was Saul. Paul’s Childhood Before we get to far ahead in the story let me give a little bit of history of Saul from Tarsus. Saul was born either very close to the same time that Jesus was born or within a few years of His birth. He was born and lived in the city of Tarsus. Tarsus was a roman providence in the southeast of Asia Minor. This undoubtedly was beautiful lush gardens and beautiful scenery for Saul to enjoy growing up. Paul’s Schooling Saul enjoyed great scenery growing up but more importantly because of where he lived he received the best education of that day that money could buy. Saul from an early age was already leaps and bounds ahead of his peers academically. Saul had a sharp mind and we will see he used that later on his ministry, and the writing of Romans which I believe was written by the Apostle Paul. Paul was living the all around Jewish dream people would say as they heard about all he had. Paul’s Family We do not know much about the history and background of Saul’s family. We do however know that his dad was of one of the strictest tribe of the Jews. He was a Pharisee and also of the tribe of Benjamin. He had nothing but pure unmixed non tainted blood in their thinking. Paul’s Religion Act 23:6 But when Paul perceived that the one part were Sadducees, and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee: of the hope and resurrection of the dead I am called in question. His father was a Roman citizen, but we do not read in the Scriptures if the apostle Paul was wed or not. Saul grew up and finished his preliminary studies approximately at the age of thirteen. After this beginning he would gone to a prominent Jewish school to study law. Saul was privileged to have been able to study under the significant rabbi Gamaliel. It was here that he spent an immense amount of time pouring himself into his studies and where he learned many things. Historians tell us that Saul was already gaining political prowess and prestige rapidly ahead of his peers. Many people believe that Saul was already heavily involved in the Sanhedrin. Saul became an extreme activist and zealous about persecuting the church. This was partially ironic because we already know that Saul trained and learned from Gamaliel who taught the exact opposite of that. We see him standing up as one of the council saying: Act 5:34-35 Then stood there up one in the council, a Pharisee, named Gamaliel, a doctor of the law, had in reputation among all the people, and commanded to put the apostles forth a little space; And said unto them, Ye men of Israel, take heed to yourselves what ye intend to do as touching these men. Act 5:38-39 And now I say unto you, Refrain from these men, and let them alone: for if this counsel or this work be of men, it will come to nought: But if it be of God, ye cannot overthrow it; lest haply ye be found even to fight against God. Paul as a Persecutor Now that Saul was intent on persecuting the church he looked for Christians everywhere. Saul was a man that did no task half way. Saul would give everything in life one hundred and ten percent as we see evident all though the study of his life. Saul discovered one way or another that there were Christians in Damascus and so after a discussion with the chief priest he received orders or permission to take care of business. Saul was so dedicated that we see he is willing to make the one hundred and thirty mile trek to persecute the church. The chief priest gave him permission to go to Damascus and bring both men and women bound back to Jerusalem. Paul’s Conversion On this trip to Damascus is where Saul gets confronted with the truth and converted to the truth. The Lord stops him in his tracks and on his path by shining a bright light around him. The Lord asks him a question from Heaven,† Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me? Saul falls to the ground under the power of the light and asks, â€Å"Who art thou, Lord?† and Jesus replies to him by saying,† I am Jesus whom thou persecutest: it is hard for thee to kick against the pricks. Right away Saul falls under intense conviction was converted and immediately asks the Lord what He would have him to do. On a brief side note this is an incredible testimony to the conversion and character of Saul. He would do everything one hundred percent and never give up until the Lord moved him and we see that every time he goes through a difficult situation (which was quite often) in his ministry. Saul’s name was eventually changed to Paul later on (which is the Gentile name) and he is temporarily blinded by the bright light. He fasts and goes without food or drink for three days. Scholars speculate it was there that he agonized and struggled but returned victoriously. A few days later he received his sight after Ananais put his hands on him and he was baptized. Paul’s Ministry He writes and informs us in Galatians that after his salvation experience he spent some time alone in the desert area of Arabia. After a period of some three years Paul is now charged up and ready to go. Many people speculate as to what exactly Paul did for those three years. We believe with research that is it safe to say that the Apostle Paul was deep in studying and learning more and more. Paul was a Pharisaical man before, but now after dealings with the Lord we see him as dry sponge soaking up the wisdom of the Word and becoming reading to dispense of it. Three years later he returned to Damascus and was ready to now preach boldly. Unfortunately they did not receive him kindly and he was forced to flee for his own personal safety. He left and went unto Jerusalem only to face the same result three weeks later. Paul was beginning to face the beatings and persecutions and torture that he had so readily dished out to the people to whom now he was called to minister. Paul was undergoing life altering events that did not even seem to faze him in the least possible way. The Apostle Paul was starting to really emerge and became quickly one of the leading missionaries for the faith. We see the church at Antioch catch spiritual fire and become burden for missions and those around them. They decided to send John Mark, Barnabas, and Paul on their very first missionary trip. This would revolutionize missions for ever after. Paul’s First Missionary Trip These three men would begin sailing from Seleucia across to Cyprus which was approximately eighty miles to the southwest. It was on this journey that Saul would no longer be called Saul but rather the Apostle Paul. The Apostle Paul took the lead role on this trip and took charge. They trekked across the mainland, and unfortunately for whatever reason John Mark left the missions field. The absence of John Mark would become a sore spot between Barnabas and the Apostle Paul in the future. However, the trip continued and they passed though Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. They turned the world upside down with their passion and mission trip. As they returned back home they retraced their steps visiting babes in Christ along the way and encouraged many churches. They would ordain elders within the church to act as an overseer in their presence to make sure all things would continue as they were. From the city of Perga they sailed unto Antioch. Paul’s Division After a while being in Antioch the Apostle Paul proposed that they return and check up on their brethren to see how they fared. The planning was going great and the trip was sure to be even bigger and better than the first until it came to a screeching halt. For the aforementioned reasons there was a sharp division between the two. Barnabas wanted to take John Mark, his cousin, and give him another chance, but the Apostle Paul was quick to remember what happened last time when John Mark bailed on them. The division was so sharp that they parted company Paul’s Second Missionary Trip Paul began his second missionary journey with a new missionary partner, Silas. Barnabas took his cousin and went on a missionary journey separate. The Apostle Paul began this missionary trip about A.D. 51. Each missionary tour that Paul took he wanted to stay out a little longer and go a little further in to the mission field. After each missionary trip he would return to Antioch give reports to the churches and check up on and encourage the brethren. Paul’s Third Missionary Trip On this third missionary trip he toured the upper coast of Asia Minor as he made his way slowly to Ephesus. As we said earlier each trip the apostle Paul wanted to stay longer and longer on the mission field and this trip was no different. He tarried there with the brethren for three years ministering to them. Like the other trips he suffered much persecution here as well. It seems that this trip might have had the most severe torture as Paul was getting older the beatings were becoming more severe and the hurled rocks would only hurt that much more against his bare sun beat back. Paul suffered so much on his mission’s trips yet he always wanted to do more and he maintained a joyful attitude despite his circumstances. Conclusion The Apostle Paul was a man that experienced great transformation in his life. He was a Pharisee of the Pharisee’s and Hebrew and on his way to Hell. God miraculously saved him on his way to persecute the church and turned his life around. Paul was a zealous man with a lot of passion whatever he did and the ministry was no different. Paul went on multiple missionary trips leading many people to Jesus. He challenged the churches, established order when necessary and revolutionized missions. The Apostle Paul is someone we should model our missions after. He had a desire to please God and did whatever it took to lead the churches in the way of truth. Paul truly lived a life that daily was â€Å"back to Acts†. And He was a real man because he preached Christ and Him crucified. May we all be as dedicated to the cause of Christ as we saw in this paper that The Apostle Paul was to Jesus Christ his Lord and Saviour.

Failures of Transactional Marketing: An Analysis

Failures of Transactional Marketing: An Analysis A. R. Lacey (1996), in Dictionary of Philosophy explains paradigm as a shared assumption or an accepted theory which governs the outlook of an epoch and its approach to scientific problems [giving] standard forms of solutions to problems. Within the physical and social sciences, it is common for one paradigm, a dominant paradigm to be prevalent. Currently, the dominant marketing paradigm, the accepted model of how marketing works and should be integrated with the rest of the world, is what has come to be called Transactional Marketing (TM) (Gronroos, 1996; Aijo, 1996; Gummesson, 1987; Berry, 1983; Jackson, 1985; Payne, 1995). This research is principally concerned with what has been called Relationship Marketing (RM), a term alluded to by Thomas (1976), but first explicitly used by Berry (1983: see Kotler, 1992; Gronroos, 1990, 1991; Hunt and Morgan, 1994; Berry, 1995; Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995; Turnbull and Wilson, 1989). The foundations of Relationship Marketing are inextricably mixed with the development and practice of Transactional Marketing. The underpinning theories and conceptualisations of RM often only exist in relation, or opposition to the theory and practice of Transactional Marketing. It is therefore necessary to understand Transactional Marketing before RM can be fully comprehended. The American Marketing Association has defined (transactional) marketing as the process of planning and executing conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organisational objectives. (AMA Board, 1985). The marketing concept is a very simple but powerful idea. The best way for a company to meet its objectives, profit making or otherwise, is by satisfying customers-the achievement of corporate goals through meeting and exceeding customer needs better than the competition (Jobber, 2001). This is best done by all members of the firm seeking to serve the needs of the customer, even at the expense of producer inconvenience. If this concept is adopted by the organisation, it leads to what is called a marketing orientation. The analysis and subsequent review of transactional marketing will be in two parts, an appraisal of its theoretical origins, development and weaknesses and an examination of the standard wa ys in which firms implement it. The next section will critique the Transactional Marketing Paradigm on two main fronts. These being firstly, criticisms based on theoretical weaknesses or omissions, and secondly, criticisms about the way in which theory and models have been misunderstood or ignored by firms. Both of these categories however, emerge out of the unique economic and social environment within which the transactional marketing paradigm developed (Webster, 1992; Aijo, 1996). 1.1. THE BIRTH OF MARKETING THEORY The origins of Transactional Marketing are in microeconomics, North America and the 1950s. Prior to WWII, economists developed price theory to embrace what they called oligopolistic competition (Chamberlain, 1933; Sheth, Gardner and Garrett, 1988; Waterschoot and Van Den Bulte, 1992). This theoretical development led early marketing theoreticians (McGarry, 1950; McKitterick, 1957; Alderson, 1957: see Gronroos, 1994, 1996) to create lists of marketing variables deduced from econometric, profit optimising equations- the so called functionalist school of marketing (McGarry, 1950). In turn, this inspired Borden (1954) to introduce the concept of the marketing mix, a list of 12 variables (product, price, branding, distribution, personal selling, advertising, promotions, packaging, display, servicing, physical handling, fact finding and analysis which the marketer would have to consider in any given situation. [And] would blend the various ingredients or variables of the mix into an integr ated marketing program. (Gronroos, 1994b:350). In a seminal work, McCarthy (1960) presented the marketing mix management approach, reconstructing Bordens original 12 variables into the now familiar 4P model (Price, Product, Promotion and Placement). The theoretical foundations of this model have been severely questioned (Waterschoot and Van Den Bulte, 1992; Gummesson, 1987; Sheth et al, 1988; Webster, 1992; Duncan and Moriarty, 1998). Principally, these questions stem from the fact that the original microeconomic variables, derived through empirical induction had solid theoretical foundations, whilst Bordens list had only second-order links to these foundations and, crucially, was not intended as an exhaustive definition or method of implementation but merely as a set of guidelines within a fully integrated marketing program. Real world developments and its inherent simplicity ensured the rise and rise of the 4P model and its attendant Marketing Mix Management theory. 1950s North America -a huge domestic market of apparently homo genous and insatiable customers -led to rapid increases in the demand for standardised consumer goods and the crowning of the United States as the dominant marketing culture. In time it became the basis of modem transactional marketing (Takala and Uusitalo, 1996; Kotler, 1992; Aijo, 1996).The simplicity and communicability of the marketing mix paradigm, in combination with its apparent success, combined to turn marketing into a highly effective impact machine (Gr6nroos, 1996c: 16). Transactional Marketing rapidly became the overwhelmingly dominant marketing paradigm (Dixon and Blois, 1983, Kent, 1986). 1.2. MARKETING IN CONTEMPORARY ORGANISATIONS Given the great number of organisations which pay at least lip-service to the importance of marketing, a diversity of methods of implementing transactional marketing is inevitable (Brodie et al, 1997). The most typical structure, and one commonly found within the context of end-user orientated firms (Christy et al, 1996) is to have within the organisation a sub-unit, separate from the rest of the firm, with responsibility for marketing market analysis, advertising, sales promotion, pricing and distribution (Buttle, 1996; Deshpande and Webster, 1989; Gurnmesson, 1994). The principal focus of this research is on the relationship between such firms, and their customers. In everyday marketing vocabulary.marketing department, an organisational unit, is used as a synonym for marketing function (Gronroos, 1994). The implication is clear, Transactional Marketing theory suggests that marketing can be treated as a separate, discrete function, rather than as an integrated one (Berry and Parasuraman,1995; Waterschoot and Van Den Bulte, 1992; Palmer, 1994; Payne, 1995; Thomas, 1996). The existence of these marketing departments echoes much about the functionalist, scientific [econometric] origins of transactional marketing. The philosophy of implementation prevalent within western business is that specialists should themselves take care of a task for specialists (Gronroos, 1996). In many businesses, the marketing department is seen as having total responsibility for various marketing tasks, such as market analysis, market planning, advertising, sales promotion, pricing, distribution and product packaging (Gronroos, 1994). This begs the question that if the ma rketing department takes care of these entire fundamental issues, what exactly is the rest of the business for? One of the primary and most traditional Justifications of adopting a marketing orientation rather than a sales or production orientation is that marketing integrates the other functions of the business (Bennett, 1996; Jackson, 1985) into a more coherent whole, built around the needs and wants of the customer. The outcome of creating a marketing department is to bring about a situation where, within an organisation, marketing department is used as a synonym for marketing function, which is the process of taking care of the fulfilment of customer needs and desires. As a consequence, the rest of the organisation is alienated from marketing, and the marketers are isolated from design, production, deliveries, technical service, complaints handling, and other activities of the firm (Gronroos, 1994). Marketing is being treated as a specialist management function, rather than a general management issue (Gronroos, 1996). Within such organisations, there is a clear-cut distinction [inferred from marketing mix management theory] between those who are involved with marketing, and those who arent. This process has been called the Ghettoisation of marketing (Gummesson, 1987). It has been strongly argued (Gummesson, 1987,1990,1994; Duncan and Moriarty, 1998; Aijo, 1996; Christy et al, 1996; Heide and John, 1995) that the distinction between the marketer and non-marketer is an artificial one. Opportunities for marketing activity are not limited to those inside the marketing department. What do the following people have in common: a telephone operator connecting a customer with a salesperson; an installation team from the supplier spending two weeks on the buyers premises installing and testing new equipment: a management consultant presenting a progress report in an assignment? (Gummesson, 1991). The answer is of course, that these are all people outside the marketing department, [therefore by definition not responsible for marketing] where, nevertheless, their attitudes and way of doing their job have an impact on the customers perception of the firm (Gronroos, 1996).These non-marketers, with their influence on the firms ability to market itself efficientl y and effectively have been called part-time marketers (Gummesson, 1987). 1.3. SUMMATION OF THE PROBLEMS INHERENT TO THE MARKETING MIX The origins of marketing mix management theory, and the transactional marketing paradigm it gave rise to be in the USA, the nineteen-fifties and microeconomics. The theoretical foundations of this paradigm are questionable in terms of its translation from econometric modelling and its pedagogical simplification. At best, the 4P model was suitable for the unique marketing environment created by the post WWH American autarchy. The theoretical weaknesses of the transactional marketing paradigm have been highlighted by radical changes in the business environment, such as the globalisation of competition and the increasing sophistication of consumers and products. These weaknesses are especially apparent in contexts that are significantly different from that of its origins -most noticeably services marketing and European markets. The academic response has been to avoid the problem by papering over the theoretical cracks. Within firms, the creation and stagnation of marketing departments h as ghettoised, neutered and isolated marketing from the consumer and even the rest of the firm. As a result of this, transactional marketing treats the consumer as passive and fails to fully recognise the marketing importance of interaction between front-line staff and customers. Transactional Marketing fails its own definition. It is a production orientated definition of marketing, not a customer orientated one. THE ORIGINS OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING THE OTHER MARKETING THEORIES The origins of Relationship Marketing are in Europe, the nineteen-eighties, and dissatisfaction with the Transactional Marketing paradigm. It was noted earlier that transactional marketing theory was principally developed from its origins in end-user, consumer markets. Relationship Marketing draws on a broader theoretical base (within a marketing context), with concomitant development within the services and business to business (B2B) marketing literatures. The term Relationship Marketing, alluded to by Thomas (1976) was first explicitly used by Berry (Berry and Parasuraman, 1991; Berry, 1995; Gummesson, 1987; Gronroos, 1996; Payne and Richard, 1993; Robicheaux and Coleman, 1994; Payne and Frow, 1997). It has also been called customer-focused management (Gummesson, 1994), or relationship management (Payne, 1996). Berry (1983) used the term within the context of criticising services marketing literature, arguing that researchers and businessmen have concentrated far more on how to att ract consumers to products and services than on how to retain those customers. He advocated a switch from a transactionary approach, where marketing effort was focussed on customer attraction, to a relational approach, where the attraction of new customers should be viewed only as an intermediate step in the marketing process (Berry, 1995), and the primary objective was retaining customers. Berry (1983) defined Relationship Marketing as attracting, maintaining and -in multi-service organisations -enhancing customer relationships. Simultaneously, Hammarkvist, Hakansson and Mattson (1982), working within the arena of business-to-business marketing (Gronroos, 1996), advanced similar definition (Andersson and Soderland, 1988; Anderson, Hakansson and Johanson, 1994) all activities by the firm to build, maintain and develop customer relations. (Hammarkvist et al, 1982: cited Gurnmesson,1987). That relationships should be managed and built has become a cornerstone of both the Nordic and the Industrial Marketing and Purchasing (IMP) School of marketing (Mattsson, 1997; Gronroos, 1996c). This parallel development within separate areas of research is far from coincidental (Takala and Uusitalo, 1996). As with the Transactional Marketing literature, each of these streams of research emanates from within a specific business environment (Aijo, 1996). SERVICES MARKETING It was argued earlier that the Transactional Marketing Paradigm habits origins within a unique and highly specific business environment, that of the North American consumer goods markets of the 1950s. It was further suggested that these origins limited the value of TM as a universal theory of marketing, and that primarily within the context of end-user orientated literature, development consisted of re-jigging a redundant theoretical format. The deviation from this specific business environment was greatest within the domains of service marketing and business to business marketing (Mattsson, 1997), albeit in very different ways. The theory and practice of transactional marketing assumes that consumers are available in great numbers and behave passively. Within industrial and service markets, the interactive Participation of the customer is required to successfully complete the exchange (Gummesson, 1987), within business, customer-firms are often limited in numbers. An ancillary implication of treating the customer as passive, someone to whom things are done (Dixon and Blois, 1983) is to instil within the business the philosophy of competing with customers, rather than interactive co-operation. Transactional Marketing Theory maintains the assumption of its microeconomic origins in that the marketing mix is a tool used to help a company optimise [maximise] its profit function (Waterschoot and Van den Bulte, 1992; Gronroos, 1991). It is because of this that firms consider marketing objectives met at the point of customer attraction -i.e. moment of exchange. When marketing a service, it is argued that the objectives should not only be to only to attract, but to then keep and maintain the customer-to develop a long-term relationship with them (Bitner et al, 1994; Cravens and Piercy, 1994; Gronroos, 1991; Gummesson, 1987b). When selling a physical product, the costs of production are offset by the revenue of the purchase. With a service, the majority of costs are often incurred whilst setting-up the service (Berry and Parasuraman, 1991; Booms and Bitner, 1981), for example; accountancy and banking. The implication of this is that longer-term strategy, in conjunction with placing significant emphasis on customer retention will yield dividends (Berry, 1995; Payne and Richard, 1993; Parasuraman et al, 1991; Gronroos, 1990), and indeed, empirical evidence to support this has been found. Reichheld and Sasser (1990) have demonstrated across a variety of service industries that profits climb steeply when a company successfully lowers its customer defection ratethe researchers found that the firms could improve profits from 25 percent to 85 percent by reducing customer defections by just 5 percent. Not only do loyal customers generate more revenue for more years, the costs to maintain existing customers frequently are lower than the costs to acquire new customers (Berry, 1995). Other studies have provided further evidence of the benefits of a long-term, customer retention strategy within competitive consumer-service markets, Storbacka (1997), Gwin (1988) and Perrienet al (1993) in banking, Crosby and Stephens (1987) in insurance. Moments of Truth and the Crucial R ole of the Part-Time Marketer. Firms producing end-user products often sell through an intermediate, retailing company. As such, opportunities for marketing are indirect via mass-media and market research (Henry, 1994). The interaction required within service and business-to-business marketing enforces a more direct approach (Gronroos, 1994). The image and reputation of the firm cannot solely be constructed through promotion. Interaction between a consumer and the firms part-time marketers (Gummesson, 1987) will result in that consumer have a positive or negative perception of the company (Price et al, 1995; Cravens and Piercy, 1994) a process that Gronroos (1982) calls perceived service quality. Given the intangibility of service products, this perceived service quality is of the utmost importance, the consumer has little else by which to judge the firm outside of his direct interaction with it (Ferguson,1996; Bitner et al, 1994). The marketing effort of the part-time marketers therefore forms the bulk of the firms marketing impact (Gronroos, 1996), often they are the only marketers around (Normann, 1983). Research shows that the customer will judge the quality of the service and form an attitude to the provider both from the experience of the production1delivery process and of the future benefits of the service (Lehtinen, 1985). In a situation where the majority of marketing activity does not come from the full-time marketers within the marketing department, it makes little sense to plan the activities of this department separately. It was argued earlier that if such a department is considered by the rest of the firm to be taking care of the marketing function, it will become increasingly difficult to create an interest in marketing amongst unwitting part-time marketers (Gronroos, 1982; Christy et al, 1996). A marketing orientation is only achieved when all members of an organisation has asked them how do I contribute to excellence in customer relations and to revenue (Gummesson,1991: 60). An auxiliary concept to that of the part-time marketer is that of points-if-marketing (Normann, 1983), more poetically called moments of truth. These are natural opportunities emerging in the production and delivery process; for example, the interaction between a doctor and a patient (Gummesson, 1991). For these occasions to be positively resolved, marketing must be designed-into the process, rather than tacked-on. RELATIONSHIP MARKETING DEFINITIONS FROM SERVICE LITERATURE Since Berry (1983), other authors have presented alternative definitions of Relationship Marketing within the services marketing literature. RM concerns attracting, developing, and retaining customer relations (Berry and Parasuraman, 1991). establishing a relationship involves giving promises, maintaining a relationship is based on fulfilment of promises; and, finally, enhancing a relationship means that a new set of promises is given with the fulfilment of earlier promises as a prerequisite. (Gummesson, 1991). The core of these ideas from services marketing is the interpersonal interaction between buyer and seller interaction. The organisation should be structured and managed so that promises worth making can be kept. Clearly, a relationship between two parties is something that grows in strength through repeated exchanges over a period of time, it is not instantaneously generated. BUSINESS TO BUSINESS AND NETWORK MARKETING Such moments of truth also exist within a business-to-business context. If the interaction between producer and consumer is crucial in services marketing it is doubly so within B2B marketing -principally because of the relatively low number of customers/suppliers (Andersson et al, 1994; Blois, 1997; Dabholkar et al, 1994). These dyads do not exist in isolation. Within the business marketing literature it has become clear that the theoretical foundations of contemporary work are not shared with the Kotlerian (Andersson and Soderland, 1988) marketing mix theory, which has microeconomic ancestry. Instead, network-theory, which attempts to model the process of resource exchange in markets where both buyer and seller are firms or other organisations has its origins in empirical work conducted over the last 20 years, principally in Northern Europe (Mattsson, 1997). The results of these studies, when assessed as a body of work, highlight several commonalities in the exchange behaviour betw een firms that contradict business philosophy derived from the transactional marketing paradigm (Elg and Johansson, 1996). B2B partners are characterised as active and mutually dependent, with the buyer and seller both able to initiate an exchange. Interaction between the organisations was not the sole purview of a marketing department but instead between the equivalent departments in each firm -inter functionally. In practice, it was recognised that the marketing emphasis had switched from optimising the marketing mix to the management of the firms relationships (Andersson and Soderland, 1988). Network theory suggests that markets are heterogeneous, rather than homogenous (Matthyssens and Van Den Bulte, 1994). The marketing objectives of the firm became to establish, develop and decide when to terminate its relationships with the customers and suppliers in its network (Hammarkvist et al, 1982). This divergence from the transactional marketing paradigm was driven by factors in the business environment (Blois, 1997; Andersson and Soderland, 1988). Many of the economic and social characteristics of Scandinavian countries [where much of the empirical work was conducted] helped to highlight the differences between consumer markets and business to business markets (Andersson and Soderland, 1988). These economies have been traditionally noted for high levels of concentration in industry, a considerable amount of interaction between firms, the state and labour unions, and the national dependence on the export of highly complex products (Porter, 1985). In general terms, business-to-business markets are characterised by a limited number of potential customer-firms, encouraging businesses to maintain relations with their partners over-time (Anderson and Narks, 1984, 1990), rather than the start-stop philosophy of transactional marketing. The increased level of interaction between the partners and the individualistic requirements of each customer obviate the need for a standardised marketing program (Dabholkar et al, 1994). Relationships must be tailored, not off the peg (Harland, 1996). The management of relationships is a complex issue, Hakansson and Johanson (1992) acetones relationship management problems as either limitation or handling problems. Limitation problems concern the firms management of its portfolio of relationships -its collection of dyadic interactions. These problems concuern which, if any, of the firms relationships should be emphasised (Andersson and Soderlund, 1988). To misquote Clausewitz, he who emphasises everything, emphasises nothing. Handling problems concern the manner in which relationships are established, and once established, how they are maintained, developed and judged appropriate for termination. Within a network, what are the relational objectives of an organisation? Transactional Marketing advocates a competitive stance, the results of any interaction between a buyer and seller must result in one winning -and one losing (Doyle and Engermann, 1992; Donaldson, 1996). Network theory espouses co-operation to produce a win-win situation (Deshpande and Webster, 1989). Despite this, network theorists consider that firms must work to deepen chosen relationships, to achieve some level of power -also called bonds over their partners whilst striving to remain free of such bonds themselves (Andersson and Soderlund, 1988). Relationships can create bonds of several types, planning, knowledge, legal and social (Berry, 1985).The end of the relationship will incur switching costs, not necessarily purely financial. The original quote being He whose fends everything, defends nothing BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP MARKETING DEFINITIONS Since Hammarkvist et al (1982) defined relationship marketing within the context of business network marketing, others have proposed alternatives. RM is an emergent disciplinary framework for creating, developing and sustaining exchanges of value between the parties involved, whereby exchange relationships evolve to provide continuous and stable links in the supply chain (Ballantyne, 1994) .. Is not directly aimed at immediate transactions but is based on building, supporting and extending customer relationships (Matthyssens and Van denBulte, 1994). RM is the process of co-operating with customers to improve marketing productivity through efficiency and effectiveness (Parvatlyar, 1996). At the heart of these ideas is the concept of a partnership where both parties require co-operative behaviour from the other in order for the relationship to be mutually beneficial -neither has many other alternatives, to buy from or supply to. The focus is not at the level of one-on-one interaction of services marketing, but is instead much wider -it is necessary for large groups on both sides to contribute. THE RELATIONAL CONSTRUCTS OF COMMITMENT AND TRUST Until quite recently, little attempt had been made to provide network theory with the conceptualisations necessary to understand the processes of relationship maintenance and development. Whilst an initial model was presented by Dwyer, Schurr and Oh (1987), the first serious attempt test a model in a structured manner was in a seminal paper by Morgan and Hunt (1994), (see Kalatatis and Miller, 1996; Hunt, 1997; Gronroos, 1996a; Gummesson, 1997). Relationship Marketing refers to all marketing activities directed towards establishing, developing and maintaining successful relational exchanges. Morgan and Hunt (1994) They further argue that Relationship Marketing requires the successful management of relationships with the firms partners. Such management requires the establishment, maintenance and development of relationships, in which understanding of concepts like commitment and trust are keys. Morgan and Hunt have suggested that commitment and trust are amongst the key mediating variables that distinguish productive, effective relational exchanges from those that are inefficient and ineffective (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Furthermore, commitment and trust between partners in a network leads directly to co-operative behaviours in three ways. Firstly, they predispose the partners towards actively preserving relational investments. Secondly they help to prevent partners from adopting short-term, opportunistic behaviours. Thirdly, they help to support the view of high-risk actions as being prudent in the longer term (Hunt, 1997). Morgan and Hunt construct what they call a KMV (Key Mediating Variable) model to show the central importance of commitment and trust in marketing relationships. THE BEGINNINGS OF A RELATIONAL PARADIGM? The increasing awareness of the limitations of the Transactional Marketing Paradigm, in conjunction with the development of Services marketing and Network marketing has led to calls for a substantial change in the marketing philosophy, practice and ethos (Daskou, 1997; Clarkson et al, 1997; Palmer, 1994). in the authors view, the present marketing concept, as it appears in research, textbooks and seminars is unrealistic and needs to be replaced (Gummesson, 199 1). The need for a paradigm shift in Marketing, based on a Relationship Theory is being advocated more and more strongly ( Gronroos, 1990). This change is not skin-deep, it will not be quick, and it will not be painless. RM suggests different focus and different underpinning values for marketing that, in my view; justify calling RM a new paradigm and the beginning of a new marketing theory. (Gummesson, 1994). It requires a totally new approach to some of the fundamental thoughts in marketingthe transition from a transaction-orientated marketing mix-based practice of marketing to a relationship-oriented one is not an uncomplicated process. The old paradigm has deep roots in the minds of marketers as well as non-marketers in a company. (Gronroos, 1996). What then, is the association between Transactional and Relational marketing? Any meaningful answer to this critical question requires a definition of Relationship marketing. The first definition of RM offered as a general rather than a business/services/consumer marketing specific definition is to be found in Gronroos (1991). Marketing is to establish, maintain and enhance, and where necessary end relationships with customers and other parties at a profit so that the objectives of the parties involved are met. This is done by a mutual exchange and fulfilment of promises. As Aijo (1996) notes from the work of Sheth et al (1988), Throughout its historymarketing has been generally dominated at any one time by one prevailing perspective. The implication of this is firstly, that the transactional paradigm will be completely replaced by the relational paradigm, and that secondly, the association between the alternative paradigms is competitive, rather than complementary. For some brief time, this view received wide support, no doubt influenced by the weaknesses of the transactional paradigm and incredible growth of relational literature (Berry, 1990; Gronroos, 1989; Dixon and Blois, 1989; Gurnmesson, 1991). Quickly, this simplistic view of the (non) association between transactional and relational was superseded by more sophisticated thoughts (Brodie et al, 1997;Aijo, 1996). Gronroos (1991) considered that the true decision facing firings was not Transactional Marketing or Relationship Marketing, but rather where on a marketing strategy continuum the comp any should place itself In some cases, a firm could be justified in maintaining a purely transactional approach. For some types of products and in some situations or for some types of customers a one-deal-at-a-time approach may be good strategy (Gronroos, 1991). This idea has great appeal, especially when it is considered that some sections of the wider marketing literature have discussed for years the interaction between the customer and aspects (we might say avatars) of the impression/relationship the firm has made in the mind of the customer-obvious examples of this would be store location strategies and especially branding. Indeed, the argument could be made that if the objective of the research project is to examine customer perspectives on their relationships with firms, an assessment of branding would be a key part of the literature review and would feed into the design of the research questions and fieldwork. A subtle but important distinction needs to be made between the re lationship a customer has with a firm and the perspectives that customer has on relationship marketing as applied to them by the company. This research project is centred on the latter, not the former. This Transactional Marketing-Relationship Marketing continuum forms the basis of a simple model that developed by Gronroos. In this model he attempts to place various categories of goods/services at the appropriate place

Searles Speech Acts An Analysis

Searles Speech Acts An Analysis Discuss Searles Speech Acts (include Felicity Conditions and Performatives) Searle took a philosophy of language approach to speech acts in an attempt to give philosophically illumination description of general features of language He aimed to answer various question in his approach; What is the difference between saying something and meaning it? How does the hearer understand what is meant? (Searle,1969). The term speech acts is used to define an utterance that has performative function in language and communication (Searle 1969) and was originally used by his mentor J.L. Austin in his theory of lectionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Drawing on these linguistic practices of Austin, Searle used his framework to base his own thesis that talking is performing acts according to rules. In the next sections I shall refer to Searles main scope of speech acts in terms of linguistic categorization and a rule-governed language. When it comes to explaining speech acts Searle suggests three different concepts; rules, prepositions and meaning. He was particularly interested in the illocutionary act of promising performatives and so set out to describe these concepts based on the conditions of this performance of promising. As part of his theory of a rule-governed language Searle made a distinction between regulative and constitutive rules. In his book An essay of philosophy of language he states that regulative rules regulate independently existing forms of behaviourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ but constitutive rules do not merely regulate, they create or define new form of behaviour (Searle,1969). For example, take the rules of American football; the touchdown rule is constitutive versus the no taunting rule which is regulative. A second concept, prepositions, provide the content of the illocutionary act which can be used in different types of acts. For example, Lucy will you sit down Lucy, sit would you sit down Lucy? al l provide the same prepositional content even though they are different forms of illocutionary acts. In terms of meaning, Searle revised the ideas of Grice and proposed modification in insisting that not only is meaning rooted in the speakers intentions but also by a matter of convention (Searle,1969). Based on his ideas one can say that the speaker initially intends for the hearer to recognize his/her intention to produce that lectionary affect and secondly, he/she intends that this is indicated by the hearers understanding of the meaning words used in the context.   These intentions can only act jointly with conventions of words for affective communication (Elswyk,2014). The notion of promising is an action referred to as a performative. Searles theory of performatives is that some illocutionary acts can be performed by uttering a sentence containing an expression that names the type of speech act these are called performative utterances. He insisted on the importance of distinguishing between different kinds of performatives; utterances, verbs and sentences. For Searle, performatives can be used in different ways, one can use it to assert or make a declaration. For a speech act to achieve its purpose the correct conditions must be in place, these conditions are called felicity conditions. Thus, a sentence must be grammatical and felicitous to be performed correctly. Originally a concept by Austin, there are 3 types of felicity conditions; preparatory conditions, a sincerity condition and a fulfilment condition. Searle later refined this changing the fulfilment condition to essential condition and introduced a fourth condition called the propositional content condition. Consider this example:   I jokingly say to friends I know pronounce you man and wife I have not actually married them because I do not have the authority to these words to have the correct illocutionary force thus the speech act fails. The felicity conditions of marrying couples rely on the legal position of the speaker (Hogan, 2000). Searle offered characterizations of linguistic elements in attempt to give a clear depiction of the difference between one illocutionary force and another. There had been previous attempts by Austin to distinguish between such elements in which he established five basic acts; Verdictives, exercitives, commissives, expositives, behavitives. Searle ultimately believed that the taxonomy needs to be seriously revised because it contains several weaknesses. One major weakness being that Austin did not determine a clear principle or set of principles on which the taxonomy was based upon and thus there was overlap between categories (Searle,1976). Therefore, a new list of new categories he regarded as the basics of illocutionary acts were formed. Firstly; (1) declarations which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs, I swear; (2) expressives which express a psychological state and how the speaker feels, e.g. congratulating; (3) commissives which is an act of getting the speaker to do something you require, e.g. threatening or promising; (4) directives which are attempt to get the addressee to do something, e.g. demanding. Finally; (5) assertives which represent the state of the situation, e.g. describing (Searle,1972). To summarise, Searles philosophic approach to speech acts proposes that speaking a language is a behaviour determined by constitutive rules. He further implies that one performs an illocutionary act by promising, directing and questioning and perlocutionary acts are affective if it has the correct effect on the hearer. These acts are governed by linguistic concepts and rules and successful communication can only occur if these are in place. Searle develops Austins ideas in a way that provides a clearer and in depth understanding of different kinds of speech acts and the role they play in speaking.

The Movie Crash and Racial Tensions :: Crash Film Movies Racism Race Essays

Tension between the African Americans and Caucasians have been present in America since slavery. In the movie Crash (2004), race and culture are major themes that can be seen in the lives of the characters in the film. One character in particular, Cameron, a prestigious color vision director, displays the friction between two cultures. He belongs to the educated, upper class of the Los Angeles area. He is also an African American, yet he seems to have no ties with that class. He has a light-skinned wife, attends award shows, and it appears that his acquaintances are predominately white. When he and his wife, Christine, get pulled over by a racist cop, he experiences emotions of powerlessness and helplessness that he never knew he would experience due to his upbringing and place in society. Cameron goes through a radical transformation where he comes to grips with his background and how he fits into these two clashing cultures. In the first scene when Cameron is introduced, two white cops get a call about a stolen car. The openly racist cop, Officer Ryan, pulls over Cameron and Christine’s Lincoln Navigator, although it is obvious that their Navigator is not the stolen vehicle. The cop thinks he sees the couple participating in a sexual act while driving. When he approaches the car to ask for registration and license, Cameron and Christine laugh and find the whole situation humorous. Officer Ryan then asks Cameron to step out, and although Cameron obeys, he acts confused. He is obviously not drunk or wanting trouble (in the movie it even states that he is a Buddhist), and he declares that he lives only a block away. When his wife comes out of the car protesting the absurdity of the stop, the officer tells both of them to put their hands on the car so he can check for weapons. The cop then humiliates Christine by feeling her up between her thighs while Cameron is forced to stand by and w atch. In this scene, Cameron does not protest but unbelievingly stares at what is happening to his wife. He is in a vulnerable situation because if he objects, he and his wife could be arrested and his reputation ruined. When the police ask Cameron what he should do with what they did in the car he slowly says, â€Å"Look, we’re sorry and we’d appreciate it if you’d let us go with a warning, please.

The Psychological Impact of War and Peacekeeping Essay -- Psychologica

Comparing ‘Suspicious Minds at Risk? The Role of Meaning in Processing War, Peacekeeping Experiences’ and ‘Nationalism, Internationalism, and Perceived UN Irrelevance: Mediators of Relationships between Authoritarianism and Support for Military Aggression as Part of the War on Terror’ and How Many Casualties Are Too Many? Proportional Reasoning in the Valuation of Military and Civilian Lives War is one of the unfortunate constants of human history, fought for various reasons. One has to wonder how much human beings can dehumanize the enemy, or their own soldiers with simple propaganda. How much distress and suspicion can lead to soldiers having a hard to readjusting to normal life? How easy it is to see one’s own country as the ultimate moral good, and all means to show it are legitimate, and anyone who speaks out is irrelevant? There are studies over this, but one wonder how well were they done, and how they compare to each other. The journal, ‘Suspicious Minds at Risk? The Role of Meaning in Processing War and Peacekeeping Experiences’, wanted to see correlation of age, meaning as comprehensibility, perceived threat, personal significance, intrusion/avoidance with quality of life.(Shok et al. 2011) They hypothesized that age and perceived threat has a positive correlation with meaning as comprehensibility and meaning as personal significance and that both of these in turn had positive correlation with quality of life and a negative correlation with intrusion/avoidance. Perceived threat was also hypothesized to have a positive correlation with intrusion/avoidance, which had a negative correlation with quality of life. (Shok et al. 2011) It was a cross sectional correlational study, who used Dutch veterans who had been ... ...ers experiencing war and their state mind prior to it. Works Cited Friedrich, J., & Dood, T. L. (2009). How Many Casualties Are Too Many? Proportional Reasoning in the Valuation of Military and Civilian Lives. Journal Of Applied Social Psychology, 39(11), 2541-2569. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00537.x Crowson, H. (2009). Nationalism, Internationalism, and Perceived UN Irrelevanc Mediators of Relationships Between Authoritarianism and Support for Military Aggression as Part of the War on Terror. Journal Of Applied Social Psychology, 39(5), 1137-1162. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00475.x Schok, M. L., Kleber, R. J., Lensvelt-Mulders, G. M., Elands, M., & Weerts, J. (2011). Suspicious Minds at Risk? The Role of Meaning in Processing War and Peacekeeping Experiences. Journal Of Applied Social Psychology, 41(1), 61-81. doi:10.1111/j.1559 1816.2010.00702.x

The History and Effects of Slavery on the South Essay -- History, War

You would think that a society which takes up an institution as immoral and barbaric as slavery would benefit from it on the whole, but that is not the case with the American South. The only people who benefited from slavery were the top 3% of Southern society. For the rest of the people the institution of slavery would prevent them from gaining an education, proper literacy, wealth, and movement up the social ladder. If viewed as an independent nation the South was a socially stagnant aristocracy, extremely dependant on foreign trade , had fairly weak industry, and finally had a small population compared to the North. Perhaps the greatest tragedy was that all those confederate soldiers died for a cause that kept them poor. This is not all though, slavery itself was horrible, and even after slaves were given their legal freedom they were still slaves in nearly every aspect save for the title. Literacy in the South was very poor compared to the North. The only Northern States that were surpassed by the South in terms of reading and writing were the states of Illinois and Indiana, and this was mainly due to an influx of illiterate foreigners, and immigrants from the slave states. The worst literacy rate in the South was in North Carolina, the ratio was 1 illiterate for every 7 white persons which is roughly a 14% illiteracy rate. In contrast the worst state in the North for literacy was Illinois at a 1:17 ratio or 6% illiteracy rate. These figures also take into account children so if you only count adults illiteracy increases particularly in the South..Finally if you look at the whole chart the slave states have the worst literacy rates in general.( Helper, 407) There are vast differences in education between the North... ..., and Lizabeth Cohen. The American Pageant. 11th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Print. "Black Codes (United States)." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 30 Jan. 2012. . Helper, Hinton Rowan. The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It. 1857. The Project Gutenberg. Web. 29 Jan. 2012. h.htm>. Hofstadter, Richard. The American Political Tradition And The Men Who Made It. New York: Knopf, 1973. Print. Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States: 1492-present. New York: HarperCollins, 2005. Print. Fuller, John. "How the Civil Rights Movement Worked" 06 May 2008. HowStuffWorks.com. 30 January 2012.

The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives

For most parts of history, government financial executives have been taken as scorekeepers, and made responsible for collecting, processing and reporting the financial information that used by elected officials and senior managers who use them in making their decisions. The question is whether their role has now changed with the present importance of information technology. (From Scorekeeper to Business Partner: The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives) Now there is increasing evidence of the importance that information technology is getting in public administration and this is resulting in more and more insistence from the public that government financial executives have a greater say in all decision making activities of the government. The finance executives are now the individuals to lead the charge for getting an entrepreneurial type of government and have it judged based on its performance. For most of the finance executives now, the changes are leading to redesigning of entire processes related to finance, introducing best practices for financial management, improving and integrating financial management with other information management and in certain cases even shifting the responsibility of all financial operations to outsiders. The trend is now to change finance functions in a manner that control functions for financial expenditures are built into non-financial processes so that the non-financial manager also has to take up responsibility for the activities. From Scorekeeper to Business Partner: The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives) This provides a lot more freedom to the finance experts to use their expertise for the purpose of finance. The attempt here is not to demean the traditional duties of government financial executives, as it is always important to comply with accounting and financial reporting that is required, make correct cash reconciliation and process all financial transactions in time. Yet, these activities were generally thought to be only the regular duties of the finance executives. (From Scorekeeper to Business Partner: The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives) There are also finance officers at different levels and the state or provincial level executives who are the link to the local finance officers from the top. They meet rarely – generally once a year during annual conferences of some type or the other. The importance of these executives is in the fact that they represent their association at official ceremonies. (State and provincial representatives (Profiling GFOA)) The importance of financial officers is being increasingly recognized and in the preface to the GAAFR 2005, which is the set of guidelines to be followed. There are the summarization and specific revisions as also updates of the text of the 2001 edition: there is addition of all the amendments that were earlier included in the GAAFR Update supplement; there has been addition of new material which are connected to the GASB statements from 39 through 45; there has been addition of new material based on the guidance that had been given in the comprehensive implementation guide as given in the GASB 2004; that included a guidance that was given for the first time in relation to GASB statement 40; there was addition of a new section related directly to all school district issues; there was reworking of a significant number of chapters; the set of references to original material was increased to a large extent so that research on the subject could become easier; an expanded and revised glossary and a redesigned index. (Making the most of the New Blue Book) Thus the importance of the finance executives in operation of the government is certain ly realized and steps are being taken to help them in operation of their functions. This is because of the present importance of the functions of the finance executives which helps the government in various ways like helping operation managers develop the financial parts of business cases and proposals for new or expanded services; leading efforts to reposition and increase the funding sources which have not been appropriated like fees, rents, royalties and franchises; provide guidance for financing new and original ventures like setting up of revolving funds, getting into public and private partnerships, or even setting up of fee for service arrangements; help performance based management; to activate a level playing field for the competition between government and the private sector. From Scorekeeper to Business Partner: The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives) Sometimes the finance executives are placed in situations beyond their capability and these results in many problems. One of the instances when this sort of event occurs is in situations when the elected person leaves it to the finance person to manage the affairs in even the small cities. Even they have become multi-million dollar enterprises today. The elected person may have been a merchant, homemaker, lawyer, community activist or anything else, but in general they have little understanding of public finance. This makes them rely on the administrators or auditors that they have in their organization. This is what happened in Orange County, California and the faulty investment strategy of the treasurer led to losses for the county of well over a billion dollars. The budget that is presented may be balanced, but that does not mean that the collection and disbursement of money is in proper order. (Guarding the Public Checkbook) In certain cases, for balancing the budget, easy methods are adopted; the money is drawn from reserves. This withdrawal can be done only once, yet the city of Miami followed this process for many years as the city had deficit operations and used bond collections to cover it up. The important matter is that the budget be balanced through the use of current revenues only. This can be understood by looking at the general fund balance sheet and the total requirement checked and the collected resources should exceed the requirements. Any management of a public corporation should be adding to the funds and not decreasing the funds by drawing from it. (Guarding the Public Checkbook) This is the primary responsibility of finance executives as they are able to understand financial statements the best. Yet problems of this nature keep on happening and a Senator in United States was shocked to learn that District of Columbia had received an unqualified audit opinion though it had a deficit as high as $700 million. The reply from the audit firm was that the financial statements were presented properly and â€Å"in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles†. Guarding the Public Checkbook) Thus the matter should have been determined by the accounting executives and brought to the notice of the people as it is their funds that are not in order. The job of the leadership is to decide where the body has to be taken, and the finance executives have to determine what is happening to the revenue base, what are the major problems for the body, what are the implications of the changes that have been made, and so on. When the issue of Orange County bankruptcy hit the headlines, the final truth was revealed that both the chief administrator and the treasurer did not know much about finance. This should have been mentioned by them and the decisions left to better qualified individuals. These sorts of problems come up when the recruitment and hiring processes are not correct. Otherwise someone should have realized that it all right to hire individuals who are not financial experts, but every organization must have at least one individual with that capacity. It is clear that elementary oversight must be practiced. In the case of Orange County, supervisor Bill Steiner clearly admitted that he did not know what questions he should have asked, and this finally made him an accomplice in the whole unfortunate affair. It is important that individuals in charge of recruitment develop the knowledge of asking relevant financial questions. Even when the problem was noted, another mess was nearly started when the county thought of using a sales tax increase as their method of getting out of the situation. The county had fallen into a position where it had to decide on privatization, program reduction, asset sales, etc. the county was trying to take a simple way out. It is clear today that the increase in tax was neither intelligent nor needed. The best advice for the county was to file for financial bankruptcy and this was provided by the Board of Supervisor, Thomas Reilly. (Guarding the Public Checkbook) It is clear that finance executives have an important role and they must live up to the expectations of the people who they are serving. However, like all other government officials, even accounting personnel have to provide leadership and one such case was in the disaster recovery effort after the Hurricane Ivan had struck northern Florida. They were a team of six high level managers who are normally accustomed to working in nice offices in a large organization. They had to toil from dawn to dusk in very high temperatures with steamy weather and there was no electricity. There was no fresh water and not a place for them to take a break. They had to do a lot of physical labor and adequate tools were not available. The food was just peanut butter, cheese from a tube, apples, and candy bars – and this was the same food for all three meals. Sleep was in the back of a cramped vehicle and that had no air-conditioning, and go through the same schedule for a few days. Yet in spite of all the difficulties the team were focused on there jobs, with cooperation and high enthusiasm. Yet the reasons why they had come were not due to government duty, but with the purpose of helping a colleague whose home had been badly damaged. (Unlocking the potential of Your Employees) The main story about all this is that the secret of making people work with a will is treating them like trusted and valued adults. They can work the best when there are clear goals and expectations with autonomy, feedback and appreciation. At the same time, it is essential that the leaders also show a certain amount of enthusiasm and human touch. The leaders have to continue working with the same energy and dedication while relinquishing some amount of control and authority. The attitude of the leaders to others must be one of empathy, or fellow feeling. On top of everything, no leader should feel that the leader knows best about all matters, and be ready to apologize when they make mistakes. These are certain behavioral techniques that help in getting the best help from employees. (Unlocking the potential of Your Employees) This appreciation of leadership role is useful to the chief financial officers and finance directors who are no longer being viewed as only scorekeepers but as trusted business advisors and partners. In the private sector, this change has been going on for quite some time, but it has started only recently in the government. This also determines the role of the financial executives and they have to spend most of their time in determining the correct strategic and operating decisions and spend much less time in earlier operations which used to take up a lot of time – like account reconciliation, payment processing and historical financial reporting. This is all being done in the machine, and thus the shift of the emphasis of the finance executive's direction is not requiring extra employment. (From Scorekeeper to Business Partner: The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives) As a matter of fact, the size of employees in the finance function will reduce. The change in the role of the finance executive is occurring in all organizations. Considering the development that has taken place over the last few years, it is important for financial executives to strike a balance between their roles as score keeper and adviser. What is meant by balance is that the regular work also has to be finished, and at the same time take up a more important role in organizational development. The results of this change in the government organizations can be seen through improved budgetary processes that are now beginning to link funds allocation to performance achieved, innovative methods to recover administrative costs, and increased use of technology to reduce the need for reconciliation and useless data entry. The help from technology is high in the areas of account reconciliation, payment processing and historical financial reporting. From Scorekeeper to Business Partner: The Evolving Role of Government Financial Executives) One of the important measures of finance officers in local governments is now performance measures and that is driven by increasing demands from citizens for government accountability, increased interest from local legislators regarding performance related information so that better evaluation can be made of programs as also for resource allocation and the efforts from different organizations and professional associations to make governments targeted to results. The performance measures allow policy makers, managers and the general public find out the effectiveness of government services. The measurement of performance takes into account the resources used, the activities generated by the programs and the final results obtained from the programs and services. However quite a few of the performance measurement activities are limited to only measuring program inputs and outputs. (Performance Measurement) On the other side, correct methods of performance measurement should also talk about the program results. From the side of the government, the Governmental Accounting Standards Board or GASB has been concentrating on performance measurement from the early 1980s. As a result of this concentration, there was a series of research reports called â€Å"Service Efforts and Accomplishments reporting† that was issued for the help of governments in measuring performance. This was followed up in 1994 with the second statement on the same lines. This stated that â€Å"service efforts and accomplishments information – including both financial and non-financial performance measures – is an essential aspect of the measurement of governmental performance and is necessary for assessing accountability and making informed decisions†. (Performance Measurement) It is important for government finance executives to tell the truth and not hide it for presentation purposes. An example is in the case of Oregon where the proportions of adult Oregonians who are smokers are only 20. 7 percent when in the rest of the country the same ratio is 23. 2 percent. Yet, they were not felt to be enough in Oregon as the state had fixed a target of 15 percent to be achieved by 2000 and this was fixed in the year 1989 by the benchmarks program in the state. While fixing the target, the committee was anything but realistic as this sort of non-smoking does not exist in United States. This is a matter that should have been properly discussed at the time of setting up the targets. The targets were set in all areas with direct goals to be reached – in health, education, economic development, environmental policy and so on. (The Problem with promises) The decision was taken that the state government would try to reach these targets within ten years. The decisions for allocation of funds and other matters were then to be made according to the achievements of targets. In one of these instances, the state wanted to reduce the use of drugs among students of the eighth standard to 3 percent from the original figure of 14 percent. Some time later it was realized that the target would not be reached, and then the solution sought for the problem was to change the target to 15 percent from 3 percent. At the end of the period, the proportion of users was 14 percent – the same as at the start of the plan – but it was viewed that the target has been reached. (The Problem with promises) These types of efforts by the accounts officers are just efforts to hide the truth and do not help any part of society. The importance of being truthful has been realized by the National Performance Review and they have stated that â€Å"effective entrepreneurial governments insist on customer satisfaction. They listen carefully to their customers – using surveys and focus groups – and restructure their basic operations to meet customer needs. They use market dynamics such as competition and customer choice to create incentives that drive their employees to put the customer first†. (Linking Quality to Business Planning and Performance Goals in Local Government) The importance of government finance officers are best utilized when they end up providing the truth to the public.